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A FORMAL PHILOSOPHY 


JOHN J. VAN NOSTRAND e ^ * 























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EXPLANATION 


A THEORY OF THE MENTAT CONSTITUTION 


C. STANILAND WAKE. 


PREFATORY NOTE. 


This Explanation of the Theory of the Mental Constitution elaborated b}^ Mr. John J. 
Van Nostrand, of Chicago, is intended to show the organic nature, not only of the Theory as 
a whole, but of the formal concepts of which it is composed. Until the latter point is 
thoroughly appreciated, the Theory itself cannot be really understood. Nevertheless, the 
System as an organic whole has a higher value than that of any of its parts ; on the principle 
that a function which is the generalized expression of all subordinate functions must be 
superior to any of its subordinates. 

In carrying into effect the request of the author of the Theory, I have adopted with little 
comment the terms employed throughout the system. In justice to myself, however, as well 
as to him, it is only right that I should say, that, in my opinion, most of the subsidiary terms 
in the Physical require alteration or rearrangement. My own views on this point will be ex¬ 
plained in a work I am preparing on “ Nature as Organic,” a work which will, I believe, 
supply all the data necessary to the establishment of Mr. Van Nostrand’s Theory on a firm 
basis. 

It may be added that the Theory in its present form is the result of thought and elabora¬ 
tion extending over a period of seven years, during the latter part of which I have assisted 
the author in its development. It is therefore perhaps fitting that I should undertake to state 
the principles which find expression in the Theory. The value of the system it exhibits ought 
to be at once apparent to the physio-psj’chologist, especially if he is at all acquainted with 
the principles of Hegelianism. 



THE MENTAL CONSTITUTION. 


Notwithstanding some question as to the nature of the human mind, it must be regarded 
as strictly organic. This is required by the fact of its connection with a physical organism, 
with which, indeed, it is so intimately associated that it is difficult to distinguish between 
their respective operations. Every bodily change, internal as well as external, is attended 
with a psychical sensation or impression, although this is often and perhaps usually unobserved, 
and every psychical impression is accompanied by a physical change of some kind. This is 
generally recognized as true, and the actual operations of the mind have been pretty clearly 
ascertained. Nevertheless these operations have not hitherto been so thoroughly correlated 
with those of the physical organism as to allow a satisfactory Theo^ of the Mental Constitu¬ 
tion to be formulated. Such a formulation is indeed possible only if three points are kept 
in view, and unfortunately they have been but little regarded. 

The first of these points is the necessity of precision in the use of terms. It is of great 
importance for the proper understanding of a writer’s meaning that the terms he uses should 
be always emploj'ed in the same sense, and that if this sense is at all uncommon they should 
be properly defined ; but it is of still greater importance that different scientific writers should 
express the same sense by the use of the same terms. Absolute precision would require the 
formation for general reference of a glossary of scientific terms, and the less the approach to 
this precision the more uncertain must be the conclusions arrived at by scientific men. 

The second thing essential to a proper theory of the mental constitution is the application 
of the law of polaritj^. The operation of this law is exhibited in the three laws of thought, 
but its true nature does not appear to have been fully recognized by psychologists, although it 
is referred to by Professor Bain, and other writers. It was undoubtedly present to the mind 
of Hegel while developing his remarkable system of thought, or “Logic,” although envel¬ 
oped in a cloud of metaphysicism which tends to hide the truth from the common mind. The 
writer who has the most clearly perceived the importance of the law of polarity in relation to 
psychical phenomena, although he did not see the full bearing of his remarks, is Mr. G. H. 
Lewes, who, in his Problems of Life and Mind , insists on the “ legitimacy no less than the ne¬ 
cessity of the law of polarity, or doublesideness, which finds its expression in differentiation 
and integration, plus and minus, quality and quantity, things and relations, matter and mo¬ 
tion, continuity and discontinuity, and many others, at the head of which must be placed sub¬ 
ject and object, or self and not-self.” Elsewhere Lewes speaks of the law of the two-fold 
aspect, but this is simply the psychical expression of the law of polarity.* 

The third point to be kept in view is the three-fold nature of the mental constitution, 
considered as embracing all its aspects, physical and intellectual. This really follows 
from the operation of the law of polarity, for, as will be shown more fully hereafter, the 
negative and positive aspects of polarity imply the existence of a third, which may be termed 
the formal aspect, as being that which combines the other two, these being from another point 
of view, therefore, merely its two-fold phase of operation, or to use Lewes’ phrase, its two-fold 
aspect. Thus the two phases, physical and psychical, of the mental organism, are merely the 
polar aspects of a third or formal aspect, which in the Theory of the Mental Constitution dis¬ 
cussed in these pages is termed the Philosophical. 

* It is remarkable how clearly the universality oi this law was recognized by Mrs. F. B. Burton in her ingenious work, 
“ Elective Polarity, the Universal Agent," published in 1845. 



4 


The division of the mental constitution into Physical, Psychical and Philosophical made 
by this theory is very different from that which separates the Mind into Feeliqg, Intellect and 
Will. Such a division cannot exhaust the complex organic unity known to us as the human 
mind. In the first place, it makes no provision for the physical existence which forms the 
basis for feeling, intellect and will. Muscle and nerve are, in our experience, essential to the 
activity of those psychical principles, which again are generally supposed to distinguish the 
animal from the plant, although there is reason to believe that the latter, equally with the 
former, has a sentient existence, which nevertheless is seldom externally manifested. But 
further, if it is intended to frame an organic representation of the mental constitution, it is 
necessary to make some provision for the special features which distinguish the human mind 
from that of the animal. Undoubtedly man has developed certain mental faculties which 
animals do not possess, and as they appear to depend on the operation of the principles of 
analysis and synthesis they may be properly termed Philosophical. 

There is one other principle which is essential to a true theory of the mental constitution, 
that of Correspondence, but this as the dynamic expression of Continuity, which the great 
Francis Bacon was the first to insist on, is a test of its truth rather than a factor in its forma¬ 
tion, and further reference to it may be reserved to a later period. 

The human mental constitution may then be said to consist of three main divisions, the 
Physical, the Psychical, and the Philosophical, of which the last answers to the Intellectual 
in ordinary discourse, as the Psychical may be said to represent the Understanding. In Mr. 
J. J. Van Nostrand’s Theory, as displayed in the accompanying Table, the mental constitution 
takes the form of three triangular pyramids. Of these, two, the Physical and the Psychical, 
form the base for the third, the Philosophical, of which the negative side stands in a special 
relation toward the Physical, and the positive side is similarly related to the Psychical. The 
Philosophical may be said, indeed, to emerge out of the other two divisions of the mental 
constitution as the result of their interaction, or in other words it is the formal expression of 
their organic activity; although it must be regarded as having always existed in germ, and 
in fact to have constituted their organic unity. Moreover, although the philosophic phase 
may thus be said to be dependent on the Physical and the Psychical for its emergence, yet 
when it has become established it has an independent existence, in so far as that it forms one 
of the main divisions of the human constitution of equal value with the other two, if indeed 
its formal character does not render it superior to them. It undoubtedly stands above them 
in the hierarchy of powers in the human mind, and it also supplies, if not the actual princi¬ 
ples which govern the mind in its operations, at least the explanation of such principles. 
Philosophical explanation consists in the formulation of the laws which govern the organic in 
its three-fold activity, as Physical, Psychical and Philosophical. 

Let it be noted, morever, that the Philosophical has the same three-fold aspect as that 
which belongs to the Psj^chical, and as the three subdivisions of the latter, Feeling, Intellect 
and Will, are regarded as forming an organic whole, standing in a certain relation towards 
the Physical but } ? et independent of it (seeing that the phenomena of each have their own 
distinctive character, although but differing aspects of the same truth), so must it be with the 
Philosophical. This is divided into Law, which answers to Feeling, Thought, which answers 
to Will, and Logic, which answers to Intellect, and the combination of those Philosophical 
elements forms an organic whole which, within its special province, is complete in itself. 
Such being the case, the nature of the Philosophical may be considered independently of the 
other divisions of the mental constitution, and when this has been done it will be found that, 
as every part of the mental constitution is subject to exactly the same principles of construc¬ 
tion and operation as every other part, the explanation given of the Philosophical must 


5 


also include that, not only of the Psychical, but of the Physical as well, since they are all 
governed by the same laws, which are those of nature itself, although being on different 
planes of existence they are somewhat differently expressed. 

But what is meant by the statement that each of the three great divisions of the mental 
constitution, although organically connected with the other divisions, forms in itself an or¬ 
ganic unity ? When we speak of an organism we mean a living body, every part of which 
stands towards every other part in a special relation, which finds expression in the functional 
activity of the body as a whole, as distinguished from the special activity of its particular parts. 
Thus the human body consists of various organs, each of which has its own special function, 
but this is subordinated to the general function of the whole body as a living organism, of 
which general function the functions of the separate organs are particular expressions. If, 
then, we compare the mental constitution to the animal organism, the three great divisions of 
the former, the Physical, the Psychical, and the Philosophical, answer to the separate prov¬ 
inces of the body, and like these each of them possesses its own organic character, exhibited in 
the special function it has to perform. 

This analog}’ may be carried further, however, as the organic structure of the animal 
body is of a complex nature. While the organic whole may be regarded as a single large 
cell, whose functional activity takes on different forms, it may be considered also as a combi¬ 
nation of various organs, each of which is built up of an almost endless series of cells, every 
one organic and having its own particular function to perform within the unity of which it 
forms a part. In like manner, the Mental Constitution, in addition to its three main divi¬ 
sions, consists of several sub-divisions, each of which by its very nature is organic, and, more¬ 
over, stands in an organic relation towards the other subdivisions ; every one of these again 
being made up of organic elements each having its special function to perform, but in subor¬ 
dination to the generalized functions of the parts to which they belong, as these are subordi¬ 
nated to the unity of the mental constitution itself. 

We thus see, that in the mental constitution every element which answers to the cell and 
every formation which is made up of a combination of elements, possesses the organic nature as 
above explained. What those elements consist of will be seen by reference to the annexed 
Table exhibiting the Theory, which shows that each of the three main divisions of the Mental 
Constitution is subdivided into three parts, and that each of these is again divided into three 
smaller parts, which are severally made up of an Idea and a Reality, with a static and a dy¬ 
namic aspect. The organic elements above referred to are these last subdivisions, and their 
organic nature consists in the relation which subsists between the element as a whole and its 
parts. Thus, we may say that the Idea, as the object of thought, and the Reality, as the 
subject, constitute the formal Whole, its parts being its two aspects, of which the static rep¬ 
resents the condition of activity and the dynamic the nature of this activity, and thus the 
former may be regarded as the organic and the latter the functional aspect. These relations 
may be exhibited diagramatieally in the following figure, which represents the highest element 
of the affective phase of the Psychical division of the mental constitution. 


Feeling 



Influence 


Impression 


Here feeling may be said to be composed of Sensibility and Influence, which stand in 
opposition to each other, as the negative and positive poles of a magnet, which are essential 



6 


to the magnet itself as a whole. The poles cannot exist without the magnet, but the magnet 
as such has no existence apart from its poles. We see, moreover, that Feeling and Impres¬ 
sion stand towards each other in a particular relation. The latter, as the Reality, is the sub¬ 
ject, and the former, as the Idea, is the object, this relation being, as Lewes points out, the 
highest expression of the law of polarity. 

It is necessary to point out, further, that polarity implies motion. Opposite magnetic 
poles attract, as similar poles repel each, and without the possibility of such attraction and 
repulsion there could be no polarity. On the other hand, with constant oscillation between 
one and the other there could be no stability. In relation to the formal concept—which is 
the proper term to apply to the several sub-divisions of the Theory of the mental constitution, 
but which is also applicable to the elements of which they are composed—the term Election 
stands for the effect arising from the movement of opposite or complementary activities, which 
are aptly termed Affection and Effection. This is represented in the following diagram : 



Here Affection answers to the negative, which is also the organic phase of the concept, 
as effection is the positive or functional phase, Election, as the expression of the polar activity 
of the affective and effective, being its formal phase. There can be no election without affec¬ 
tion and effection, that is, without the co-action of opposing motions, the result of whose 
opposition is registered as their elective influence. 

The above figure represents, as we shall find, the dynamic formula of Law, and it may be 
said to supply the type for the formation of every concept. This is apparent when we con¬ 
sider the structure of the concept Thought, which is the effective element of the Philo¬ 
sophical division in the Theory. It is represented in the following diagram : 


Thought 



Identification 


In this figure, Dichotomy appears as the negative aspect and Identification as the positive 
aspect of Thought—Concept-ion, which as their formal expression, is the elective. Thought, 
as the Idea, of which the Reality is Concept-ion, is thus a polar process requiring on the 
affective side Dichotomy, and on the effective side Identification, which is the function of 
Thought, Dichotomy being its condition. This view of Concept-ion is consistent with the 
ordinary meaning of the term, which implies the co-operation of two factors, whose mutual 
action results in the formation of the concept. Thought thus depends on Dichotomy as its 
condition, and Identification as its activity, they being the affective and effective aspects of 
Concept-ion, the concept itself emerging as the result of their co-operation. The concept, as 
answering to Formation in the Physical, is a series of motions, under the conditions of Dich¬ 
otomy, the fulfillment of which requires the application of the law of polarity. By virtue of 
this law the concept takes on its affective and effective formation, which is exhibited as its 
negative and positive aspects; as appears in the perfected concept Thought, where Thought 
itself, as the elective element, supplies the formal aspect. 




7 


If we refer to the highest division of the Theory as exhibited in the Table, and consider 
the formal concept Logic, which is its elective, we see that it is really made up of three sepa¬ 
rate concepts, which may be termed subsidiary. Represented diagramatically they take the 
following form : 


Logic 



Now these concepts, although each possesses its affective, effective, and elective elements, 
are, so far as their position in the Philosophical division of the Theory is concerned, subordi¬ 
nate to the three-fold unity of which they are the parts. In this unity Analysis, with its 
static and dynamic aspects, represents the affective or negative side, and Synthesis, with its 
two aspects, the effective or positive side of the formal concept of which Logic, with its polar 
phases, is the elective. We have a summary representation of those ideas in the following 
diagram, which comprises the elective terms of the three sub-concepts : 


Logic 



It is evident that what may be termed the functional activity of Logic, regarded as an 
organic whole, depends on the co-operation of all its parts, each of which is separately of sub¬ 
ordinate value. The organic value of each part, moreover, depends on its association with 
the other parts, just as that of the separate organs of the body arises from their mutual rela¬ 
tion as parts of a common whole. But, as we have already seen, Logic is only one of the 
Lhilosophical subdivisions of the mental constitution. Apart from the other subdivisions, 
Law and Thought, it would have as little relative value as Logic itself would have separated, 
if this were possible, from Analysis and Synthesis. These are, indeed, the polar phases of 
Pogic, that by which it exists, and out of whose activity it may be said to emerge. In like 
manner, Logic emerges from the polar activity of Law and Thought, which are the negative 
and positive, or affective and effective phases of the Philosophical, as Logic is its elective 
phase. Or, if we regard Law as the organic phase, and Thought as the functional phase, 
then we must treat Logic as the formal phase of the Philosophical.* 

*It is through formal thought that uniformities are discovered. They emerge from the t'hought process as a mathematical 
expression of certain uniform motions traversing the fibrous matter of the brain and its relations throughout the body. This 
mathematical expression is a positive correspondence revealed by the co-related motions of the protoplasmic, cellular, and 
fibrous forms of matter of the human body, which severally answer to the Physical, Psychical and Philosophical divisions of the 
Mental Constitution as exhibited by the Theory. Formal Logic is the form of motion arising from the interaction of Formal 
Concepts, when they as parts of a logical whole occupy valid positions, that is, such positions as r.ender them effective—which 
t can be the case only when by their uniform motion their election in co-relation is identified. 

Uniform motions are laws. Equal spaces covered in equal times elect validity, and of course this can only refer to the motion 
or motions of some body or condition. It is, therefore, the motions of a thing which are its laws. [See Infra.]—J. J. V. N. 






8 


All these sub-divisions of the Philosophical are necessarily constructed according to the 
same principles, and therefore both Law and Thought are formed of three subsidiary con¬ 
cepts, each of which has three aspects, the organic or negative, the functional or positive, 
and the formal, which are related among themselves as affective, effective and elective. The 
three Legal concepts may be represented separately' as follows : 



These three concepts stand towards each other in exactly the same relation as the sepa¬ 
rate terms of each concept have among themselves. The relation is one of polarity, the con¬ 
cept Space being the negative, the concept Time the positive, and the concept Law the formal 
expressions of the perfected concept Law, and thus its affective, effective and elective phases. 
These relations may be given a more organic form, by an arrangement of the elective terms of 
the three concepts similar to the representation of the formal concept Logic, at page 7, as 
follows : 


Space 

Uniformity 



Time 


Here Space—Negation forms the affective side of the perfected concept, Time—Position 
its effective side, and Law, of which Uniformity is the reality, its formal expression. 

The real meaning of this and other Philosophical concepts will be explained when we 
come to consider the relations which the Philosophical and the Physical divisions of the men¬ 
tal constitution bear towards the Psychical division. At present we are concerned only with 
individual formal concepts, and following the course already pursued with reference to Logic 
and Law, we will now analyze the concept Thought. The three sub-divisions of this concept 
may be represented as follows : 


Idea 


Abstraction 



Object-ion 


Thought 



Affirmation 


In the mutual relation of these three subsidiary 7 concepts, the organic nature of the concept 
Thought consists. The affective and effective concepts are its polar aspects, and in combining 









9 

they give rise to the elective, which is their formal expression. This combination is exhibited 
in the following diagram, representing the Ideas and Realities as the electives of the subsidiary 
concepts. 


Thought 


Idea 


Concept-ion 



Reality 


Here Idea and Object-ion constitute the affective phase of the completed concept, Reality 
and Subject-ion its effective phase, and Thought and Concept-ion, as Object and Subject, the 
polar aspects of its elective phase. Thought is thus the emergent from Idea and Reality, of 
which it is the formal expression, while Concept-ion stands in a similar relation to its negative 
and positive aspects, Object-ion and Subject-ion. 

It has been pointed out above that the type of the formal concept is due to the operation 
of the principle of polarity, which is exhibited in the negative and positive aspects into which 
the concept divides, in pursuance of the dichotomy which is the condition of Concept-ion. A 
little consideration reveals the fact that the Ideas which thus stand in a polar relation, as neg¬ 
ative and positive aspects of the concepts Law and Thought, have a special connection with 
the sub-concepts of the elective formal concept, Logic. In fact, the negative sub-concept Analy¬ 
sis becomes there exhibited as Space and Idea, and the positive sub-concept Synthesis is ex¬ 
hibited as Time and'Reality. The interconnection of the negative sub-concepts is shown in 
the following diagram : 


Analysis 



The following diagram gives a representation of the positive sub-concepts of the three 
divisions of the Philosophical: 


Synthesis 


Time 


Deduction 



Reality 


In the upper of these diagrams we have the Ideas and Realities which form the electives 
of the negative or affective aspects of the Philosophical throughout its several divisions, 
and in the lower diagram we have the electives of its positive or effective phases. These may 
be supplemented by a representation of the three concepts which form the electives of the 
formal concepts Law, Thought and Logic, as this will be equivalent to a representation of all 





IO 


their subsidiary concepts. The following is such a generalized expression of the Philosoph¬ 
ical division of the mental constitution : 


(Logic) 

Correspondence 


Mathematics 

(Revelation) 

In this diagram Law occupies its proper position as the affective, and Thought that of the 
effective. They are thus the negative and positive aspects of Logic, the formal character of 
which is brought out more clearly in the following diagram, where it appears as the elective 
of the various Ideas and Realities comprised within the Philosophical division : 



Logic 



Thought 


From this diagram we see that, in its highest sense, Logic, as the Idea, is Thought under 
the condition of Law, and that Revelation, as the Reality, is Concept-ion under the condition 
of Uniformity. But the static aspect of Logic is Mathematics, and its function Correspond¬ 
ence, and hence Philosophy is Revelation through the agency of Mathematical Correspondence. 

The organic unity of the Philosophical phase of the mental constitution has now been 
sufficiently exhibited, and we have seen that each of its concepts, whether subsidiary or com¬ 
pleted, has its static and dynamic aspects. The static is the structural or organic factor, and 
the dynamic is the functional. The function furnishes the law of organic activity, and the 
dynamic aspect is, therefore, of especial importance in relation to the theory of evolution, of 
which the Theory under discussion is an expression. The following diagrams exhibit the 
dynamic formula of Law, Logic and Thought, the three main divisions of the Philosophical : 



The last of these formula will be recognized as representing the three well known laws 
of thought. The first formula is of great importance as furnishing the type according to 
which, as we have seen, all concepts must be constructed The dynamic formula of Logic is 
of still higher significance, as it supplies the key by which to determine, not the mere type 
of the concepts of which the theory of the Mental Constitution is built up, but the very ma¬ 
terial of the theory. Logic, as the elective principle of the Philosophical, forms the apex of the 







pyramid of truth. It is, in a sense, the formal expression of all truth, and hence its highest 
term must be of especial value. This is shown by the following diagram representing the 
electives of the electives of the Philosophical formal concepts. 


Correspondence 



Identification 


In this diagram we have the complete functional exhibition of the Philosophical. As its 
formula represents the dynamic formula of Law, the governing principle of which is polarity, 
Correspondence is the formal elective which emerges from the co-operation of Election, as the 
negative-affective, and Identification, as the positive-effective, and therefore it is the highest 
expression of functional activity. 

But Election represents the principle of Law, and Identification that of Thought, which 
are the affective and effective concepts of the Philosophical. Moreover, the condition of the 
activity of Thought is Dichotomy, and that of Election is Relation, and therefore Correspond¬ 
ence, as the functional aspect of Logic, has to do with dichotomous relations. The Theory of 
the mental constitution is an exhibition of those relations, and the key to its significance, apart 
from its typical formation, lies in the necessary correspondence between the terms which ex¬ 
press those relations, not only-in the concepts of the Philosophical, but also throughout the 
whole of the other divisions of the mental constitution, which are not only built up according 
to the same type, but are embodiments of similar relations. 

Before proceeding further the sense in which the term Correspondence is used should be 
explained. It cannot mean exact likeness, because it has reference to different divisions of 
the mental constitution, that is, to mental phases on different organic planes. By Correspond¬ 
ence, then, must be understood similarity rather than sameness, and the idea to be kept in 
view is that of equivalence , by which is meant that the mental aspects compared, are of equal 
value in the positions they occupy, be this in the Philosophical, the Psychical, or the Physical 
division of the mental constitution. Even within the same division there is a difference of 
relation which requires to be represented by a change of term, and this may be regarded as a 
step in organic progress, every step in advance being positive progress, as every backward 
step is a negative progress, that is a retrogression. There must still be perfect equivalence in 
the terms used to express these steps, even when by accumulation they have come to represent 
stages of progress, and the want of it will be sure evidence that there is something wrong 
with the terms employed to express one or other of the relations compared. 

But the Correspondence or Equivalence just referred to may be said’to depend on another 
phase of equivalence which, as expressive of the organic relations of the mental constitution, 
is of the utmost importance. This can best be illustrated by the dynamic formula of Logic, 
which was represented at page io, but which may be here repeated, as follows : 


Correspondence 


Persistence 



Continuity 


In this formula the affective term Persistence represents the negative analytic activity of 
Correspondence as the elective function of Logic, and the effective term Continuity repre- 




12 


sents its positive synthetic activity. The elective is thus always the equivalent of the affect¬ 
ive and the effective, as is required by the fact that the latter exhibit the polar activity of the 
former, which therefore is their formal or organic expression. 

This law of equivalence is exhibited in the dynamic formulas of Taw and Thought also, 
represented at page 8 above, Election being the equivalence of Affection and Effection, and 
Identification of Contradiction and Affirmation. It is applicable no less to the subdivisions of 
the several formal concepts which make up the Theory of the mental constitution, than to the 
separate formulas into which each such concept may be analyzed. Thus Logic is the equiva¬ 
lent of Analysis and Synthesis, as Law is the equivalent of the relations of Space and Time, 
and Thought that of Idea and Reality. Moreover, the formal concepts Law and Thought 
find their equivalence in that of Logic, since they are its affective and effective phases. That 
law operates also throughout the Physical and Psychical divisions, and it equally governs 
these divisions themselves as the affective and effective phases of the mental constitution, of 
which the Philosophical is the elective. The Philosophical is the expression of the Physical 
and the Psychical, because it is their equivalent, as combining within itself the varying aspects 
of every idea which they embody. The law of equivalence as thus stated is practical^ the 
same as the law of polarity which regulates the construction of the formal concept, or rather 
it supplies the formal element on which the negative and positive phases depend for organic 
expression. To show its operation in the formal concept, Logic, its several elements may be 
exhibited diagramatically as follows : 


I.ogic 



Synthesis 



Continuity 


In the sub-concept Analysis, Induction is the equivalent of Parts and Persistence as their 
formal expression, and in the sub-concept Synthesis, Deduction, as the formal expression of 
\\ holes and Continuity is their equivalent. These sub-concepts, however, constitute the 
negative and positive, or affective and effective aspects of the formal concept Logic, which 
may be described therefore as the equivalent of Analysis and Synthesis, or of their Realities 
Induction and Deduction. As to the correspondence between the terms employed to express 
those relations, it is evident that Parts and Persistence have such a relation to Analysis as 
\\ holes and Continuity have to Synthesis. Moreover, Mathematics stands in the same rela¬ 
tion to Parts and Wholes which represent minus and plus—that Correspondence does toward 
Persistence and Continuity, Parts being constituted by Persistence and Wholes by Continuity. 

By the law of correspondence, there should be a complete equivalence between the several 
subsidiary concepts which are embraced within the formal concept Law, and those of Logic, 
given above. That this may be recognized the former are here represented diagramatically : 





J 3 

Law 



According to the principles already laid down, Space must be the equivalent of Privation 
and Affection, wdiich answer to Parts and Persistence in the affective of Logic, and Time, 
that of Number and Effection, corresponding with Wholes and Continuity in the effective of 
Logic. In like manner, Law is the equivalent of Relation and Election, which answer 
to Mathematics and Correspondence in the elective of Logic. It may be added that Privation 
as Affection is the Negation of Space relations, and Number as Effection is the Position or 
positing of Time relations. Moreover, the Election of relations is Uniformity as Law'. But 
legal uniformity must be the equivalence or formal expression of Space-Negation and Time- 
Position, as its affective and effective aspects, that is, the idea of Law r , as Uniformity must 
emerge out of the polar relation, Space and Time. This fact is expressed in the explanation 
given of uniformity of motion, as “the passage of a body over equal spaces in equal times.’’ 
Law may thus be described as the formal expression of the uniformity of relations in Space 
and Time, which relations depend on motion. 

If now we compare the elective elements of the several subsidiary concepts of the concept 
Law, as above represented, with those of the subsidiary concepts of the concept Logic, we see 
that Analysis as the Idea and Induction as the Reality answer to Space and Negation, while 
Synthesis as the Idea and Deduction as the Reality answer to Time and Position. Further, 
Logic as the Idea and Revelation as the Reality correspond with Law and Uniformity. The 
meaning of this is, that Induction by Analysis, through Mathematics as the condition of Logic, 
gives Negation of relations in Space, and that Deduction by Synthesis gives Position in Time, 
while Logic as Revelation is based on Law as Uniformity, of -which it is the highest expression. 

It should be noted, however, that as the concept Law is the affective of Logic, the former 
has throughout all its members especial relation to Analysis as the negative aspect of Logic. 
On the other hand, the concept Thought, -with its several subsidiary concepts, as the affective 
of Logic, stands in a particular relation to Synthesis as its positive aspect. Thus Time, as 
the effective of Law, is always analytical, in the sense that it arises from Number. In testing 
the correspondence between the formula of Thought and Logic, that fact will have to be kept 
in view; since, although the affective of Thought as negative must bear a certain relation 
to Analysis, yet it will also have a synthetic element, owing to its closer connection with 
the positive aspect of Logic. The following diagrams give a representation of the three 
Thought concepts : 

. Thought 




Object-ion 


Contradiction 


Generalization 


Subject-ion 


Affirmation 








H 

Considering these formula in themselves, we must see in Idea the equivalence of Ab¬ 
straction and Contradiction, and in Reality the equivalence of Generalization and Affirmation, 
while Thought is that of Dichotomy and Identification ; or, in other words, • these several 
elective phases emerge from their affectives and effectives, which from another point of view 
are their polar activities The affective of each formula is its static aspect, and the effective 
its dynamic aspect, and the three affectives and the three effectives may be made to repre¬ 
sent separate formulas, as follows : 



The operation of the law of equivalence is no less observant here than in the preceding 
formulas. The affective and effective Abstraction and Generalization are the polar aspects of 
Dichotomy, which as the formal elective is their equivalent, showing that it consists in Ab¬ 
straction and Generalization. In like manner Identification is the equivalence of Contradic¬ 
tion and Affirmation, which are its affective and effective modes of operation, or negative and 
positive phases. This agrees with the explanation usually given of the three laws of thought, 
which are embodied in the above dynamic formula. Professor Noah K. Davis remarks that 
the second and third laws of thought, those of contradiction and excluded middle, may be 
united as the Law of Duality, “the principle of strict logical division and disjunction.” 
Moreover, Identit}^ answers to Definition, in which, says the same writer, the notion defined 
and the definition are reciprocal or convertible concepts, that is equivalent. But as the law 
of duality, or contradiction and excluded middle, answers to division, in which a genus, or 
united whole is divided by dichotomy into its two only species, A and non-A, which are con¬ 
tradictory, and as division and definition are convertible correlatives, Identification must be 
the equivalent of Contradiction and Affirmation. 

But the equivalence of the affective and effective of the dynamic formula of Thought with 
the elective, establishes the correspondence between that formula and the dynamic formula of 
Logic, seeing that, as already shown, Correspondence in the Logical answers to Equivalence, 
and this is the same as Identification But further, as the electives of the two dynamic form¬ 
ulas thus correspond, their affective and effective terms must also correspond, and Contradic¬ 
tion and Affirmation must be equivalent to Persistence and Continuity. 

There is a further equivalence to be noted in the Thought concepts represented above, at 
page 13. Thought, the Idea, as the elective, is the formal expression, and therefore the 
equivalent of Idea and Reality, as the affective and effective. It follows that Concept-ion, as 
the Realit) r , must be the equivalent of Object-ion and Subject-ion, and in fact it is constituted 
by these two mental operations. It is necessary, however, to explain what is meant by the 
terms Object-ion and Subject-ion. Idea is the negative aspect of Thought, that is, it is the 
separative form in which an object is presented to the mind when it is recognized not simply 
as an image, but as a bundle of qualities, which represent its Parts. This presentation is 
mental Object-ion, and is essential to the process of thought concept-ion performed by the 
human mind. The condition of Object-ion is Abstraction, and its operation Contradiction, 




15 

the Ideas which the mind thus acquires undergoing the process of Generalization, and by 
Affirmation becoming thought Realities. This is the process of Subject-ion which is identifi¬ 
cation of the qualities resulting from Abstraction with the Reality which emerges as the effect 
of Generalization. These are the negative and positive phases of thought dichotomy, and 
the final outcome is the formation of a completed conception, as the formal expression of the 
dichotomous operation. This formal expression, however, requires embodiment in language, 
which is essential therefore to logical Identification and is its real evidence. 

We are now in a position to consider the correspondence between the Ideas and Realities 
which constitute the electives of the concept Thought as figured at page 13 and the electives 
of the concept Logic as represented at page 12. Comparison shows that the affeetives Idea 
and Object-ion in the former answer to the affeetives Analysis and Induction in the latter, 
while the effectives Reality and Subject-ion correspond with the effectives Synthesis and De¬ 
duction, and the electives Thought and Concep-tion with the electives Logic and Revelation. 
The correspondence between the two affeetives and also between the effectives is evident from 
what was said above as to the meaning of Object-ion and Subject-ion. These are, in fact, 
Induction and Deduction in the effective division of the Philosophical, although, as coming 
under the positive aspect of Logic, Object-ion possesses an element of Synthesis. This is ex¬ 
hibited as subjective Generalization, which is the synthesis of all qualities of a particular 
kind abstracted in thought, as the synthesis of qualities of different kinds is objective Individ¬ 
uation. It follows that Idea corresponds with Analysis, and Reality with Synthesis, although 
an Idea, owing to its connection with the positive side of Logic, may possess a synthetic ele¬ 
ment which is wanting to Induction. 

But do the electives Thought and Concept-ion correspond with Logic and Revelation ? 
This depends on the sense in which these terms are used, and particularly as to the meaning 
of Logic. This word is connected with the Greek, Logos , and in Philosophy Logic is the 
idea of Wisdom or Truth, that which is embodied subjectively in signs and symbols, and 
objectively is their actual expression as thought concepts. The Ideas Logic and Thought 
may be said then to be correspondents in their own domains, and therefore the Realities Reve¬ 
lation and Concept-ion must also correspond, and as Revelation is the result of Concept-ion, 
so this mental process is in the nature of Revelation, that is, the unveiling of the principles of 
Uniformity, the Law’s of the Human Mind. 

But, further, Mathematics, the condition on which Logic depends, is a language of signs 
and symbols, which are reducible ultimately to the simple negative and positive elements 
minus and plus. These are the elements which condition the w'hole mental constitution 
throughout all its parts and divisions, and that are in fact essential to the formation of every 
concept which enters into it. This is required by the law of polarity, which exhibits itself as 
dichotomy in thought, and we thus see that Dichotomy is equivalent in Concept-ion to Mathe¬ 
matics in Revelation. These factors are therefore correspondent; a view which is confirmed 
by the fact that, as under its negative aspect of Analysis, Mathematics has to do w r ith Parts, 
and under its positive aspect of Synthesis with Wholes, so Object-ion, the negative phase of 
Dichotomy, is concerned with Abstraction, and its positive phase Subject-ion with Generaliza¬ 
tion, these being minus and plus operations. 

A comparison having been made of the affective and effective divisions of the Philosoph¬ 
ical, Law and Thought, with the elective division Logic, and a correspondence having been 
established between them, it is not necessary’ to compare the formulas of Law’ and Thought 
among themselves. In the fact of each agreeing with a third, they show their agreement 
with each other. Nevertheless, to exhibit the nature of this correspondence, a diagrammatic 
representation may be given of the three completed concepts, Law’, Logic, and Thought. 


i6 


(Logic) 

Correspondence 



(Law) (Thought) 

Election * Identification 




In comparing these formulas, it must be remembered that the concept Law, under all its 
aspects, is the affective, Thought the effective, and Logic the elective of the Philosophical. 
Logic is thus the formal expression of Law and Thought, and this is true of all its terms in 
relation to the corresponding terms of the affective and effective divisions. If we also bear in 
mind that the elective is always the equivalent of the affective and effective, and that equiva¬ 
lence is the expression of the law of polarity, we shall recognize how thoroughly organic is 
the arrangement of the Philosophical division of the mental constitution. 

It has been already pointed out that the mental constitution possesses three main divisions, 
which stand towards each other in the same relation as do the several subdivisions of the 
Philosophical, that is, one is affective, another effective, and the third elective. Moreover, as 
the elective of the Philosophical depends on the mutual action of its affective and effective for 
its formal emergence, while finding its expression in them as its polar phases, so the entire 
Philosophical, while it constitutes the formal expression of the Physical and Psychical, de¬ 
pends on them for the polar activity through which it emerges. Thus, in relation to the men¬ 
tal constitution as a whole, the Physical stands towards its other two main divisions, the 
Psychical and the Philosophical in exactly the same position as the concept Law stands towards 
the concepts Thought and Logic in the Philosophical. Hence the Physical forms the negative 
or affective side of the mental constitution, and the Psychical its positive or effective side, as 
the Philosophical is its elective or formal expression. 

The importance of the Physical is evident when we consider that, through its position as 
the affective, it forms the condition, not only for the functional activity of the Psychical, but 
also for the formal activity of the Philosophical. In pursuance of the law of polarity by which 
its structure is governed, as with the other divisions of the mental constitution, it consists of 
three sub-divisions which stand toward each other in the relation of affective, effective and 
elective, and each of these is made up of three elements which exhibit among themselves a 
similar formal arrangement. Each of those subdivisions has its negative or separative, and 
positive, or aggregative aspects, which constitute its affective and effective elements, as the idea 
Rhythm, with its static and dynamic aspects, furnishes the elective or formal element. It is 
made up, therefore, like the related Philosophical concept Logic, of three subsidiary con¬ 
cepts which, as given in the Theory, take on the following diagrammatic form : 





i7 



Here the sub-concept Light is the affective, the sub-concept Gravitation the effective, and 
the concept Rhythm the elective. Rhythm is thus the formal expression, and therefore the 
equivalence of the mutual activity of Light and Gravitation, which stand in a similar relation 
toward their own affective and effective elements. 

Comparing the above formulas with those of Logic given at page 12, we can well believe 
that the Ideas Light and Analysis are correspondents, as the object of the latter process is 
to throw light on that to which it is applied, and in relation to Light itself the process gives 
us knowledge of the elements of which it is composed. But the correspondence of the other 
terms of the sub-concept is not so apparent. Resistance can hardly answer to Induction, un¬ 
less Resistance can be said to occasion light, which it does, apparently, only through heat. 
Parts and Persistence, the static and dynamic aspects of Analysis, have merely the negative 
relations of Space, and such must be the case also with Light and its several aspects. In this 
sense, Individuation and its condition Repulsion may be said to correspond with Parts and 
Persistence, and as these find their formal expression or equivalence in Space, Repulsion and 
Individuation must do the same in Light. 

The opposite to Repulsion is Attraction and that of Individuation is Organization, terms 
which have the same degree of correspondence with Wholes and Continuity in the Philosoph¬ 
ical elective as are found among the terms on the negative side of the concepts now being 
compared. The opposite of Light would seem to be Gravitation, which corresponds well with 
Synthesis. The static and dynamic aspects of Gravitation, which are Attraction and Organiza¬ 
tion according to the Theory, have a correspondence with Wholes and Continuity, in which 
Synthesis finds its polar expression. Moreover, Dependence, as the opposite of Resistance, 
has a relation to Gravitation similar to that which Resistance has to Light. 

Turning now to the elective formula of Rhythm, we have to consider the nature of its 
terms, and to ascertain how far they correspond with those of the elective element of Logic. 
If we refer to the diagram given above, we see that Polarity and Function are the affective 
and effective to Rhythm, wdiieh as the elective is their formal expression and thus answers, in 
the Physical, to Logic in the Philosophical, whose polar expression is Mathematics and Cor¬ 
respondence. That Polarity and Mathematics are correspondents is shown by the fact that 
they are both concerned with negative and positive factors. According to the formula, Func¬ 
tion is the effective of Rhythm, but the effective is the functional, and the real question would 
seem to be what is the functional activity of Rhythm or its reality Vibration. That can 
hardly be Function itself, and as answering to Correspondence in fhe Philosophical and as 
having polar attributes, it may be Alternation.' Alternation in Polarity would give rhythmic 

1 “Function” is the philosophical term to express the sum of motions which constitutes dynamic activity under any particular 
conditions, and it appears to me, therefore, that if the term “function” ought to be shown anywhere on the face of the Theory, 
it should be in the place occupied by “Correspondence.” But, according to the principle of correspondence there exhibited, a 
term analogous to that should appear as the dynamic aspect of Rhythm, such as “Alternation, ’ or perhaps better still, Fquiva- 
lence,” as to which see page 12 above. In deference to the Theory, however, I have adhered in the following pages to the term 
“Function.”—C.S. W. 






i8 


motion as Vibration. This may be described as the formal expression of Polarity and Func¬ 
tion, or Alternation, which are its affective and effective phases, that is, Vibration is the result 
of their mutual action, just as Revelation may be said to result from Correspondence under 
the condition of Mathematics. 

The simplest formal expression of the concept Rhythm is that which embodies in one 
formula the electives of its three subsidiary concepts, as represented in the following diagram: 


Rhythm 



Gravitation 


Here we see Light and Gravitation as the negative and positive polar aspects of Rhythm, 
which is the formal expression of their mutual activity. Rhythm stands, however, for Vibra¬ 
tion, which must therefore have a similar formal relation to Resistance and Dependence, or to 
whatever may be the realities of which Light and Gravitation are the Ideas. 

We have now to analyze the formal concept Power, which constitutes the affective of the 
Physical, that its terms may be compared with each other and with those of the affective of 
the Philosophical, the concept Law. The following diagrams represent the three subsidiary 
concepts of which the concept Power is composed : 



In these formulas Energy and Dissolution are the polar affective and effective phases of 
Heat, which therefore is their formal or equivalent expression, as Chemical Affinity is of Force 
and Evolution, which constitute its negative and positive aspects. Further, Power, as the 
Idea, which results from the activity of matter in motion, is the formal expression of Heat and 
Chemical Affinity. The Realities of Heat and Chemical Affinity, however, are Separative 
and Aggregative, and these are the negative and positive aspects of Change, which as the 
Reality of Power, may be declared to be the balancing or equivalence of those phases of En¬ 
ergy and Force. 

If now we compare the formula of Power with those of Law in the Philosophical as rep¬ 
resented above at page 13, it may be said that, as these are correspondents, and as the former 
stand in the position of affection, Change, the Reality of Power, is the condition of Uniform- 
ity. as the Reality of Law, which may be described, on the other hand, as Power and Change 
in the Philosophical. Moreover, Matter and Motion must be the correspondents of Relation 
and Election, which are respectively the affective and effective attributes of Change in the 
Philosophical; just as in the Physical, Uniformity may be said to exhibit its influence in the 
mutual activity of Matter and Motion. Thus it may be said that the Law of anything is the 
uniform motion which constitutes its change of relation. 






19 


If we turn now to the Heat formula, we find that its affective and effective, Energy and 
Dissolution, correspond with Privation and Affection in the formula of Space, which is their 
emergent, the privation of relation being attended with affection and giving the Idea of Space. 
In like manner Heat, or its Reality, Separation, is the result of Energy and Dissolution, and 
although Energy can hardly be described as the condition of Heat, yet Dissolution is attended 
with Heat or Separation, as seen in the combustion of the animal tissues as the result of the 
activity of the physical organism. 

In the concept which forms the positive aspect of Motion, Force is the affective and Evo¬ 
lution the effective to Chemical Affinity, the principle of Aggregation, as the elective, and 
their correspondents in the Philosophical concept Law are Number and Affection, with Posi¬ 
tion in Time as their formal expression. Position thus answers to Aggregation, which is con¬ 
cerned with chemical relations, as Position is connected with the number of such relations. 
Again, Effection, which gives rise to the idea of Time, answers to Evolution which exhibits 
itself as Chemical Affinity, and as its condition Force is the correspondent of Number, we see 
that the latter, which has reference to Relation, is the Philosophical expression of the former, 
which has reference to Matter. 

These various Physical relations may be formulated more simply by associating the Ideas 
and Realities of the subsidiary concepts which make the formal concept Power, as in the fol¬ 
lowing diagram : 


Power 



In this figure Heat and Chemical Affinity are the polar phases, that is the negative and 
positive aspects of Power, which is their formal expression, as resulting from their mutual 
activity. In like manner, Change, the Reality of Power, is the formal expression of its polar 
phases, Separation and Aggregation, from which, on the other hand, it may be said to emerge; 
as Uniformity, the Reality of Law, emerges from the mutual relation of Negation and Position. 

Having examined and compared the terms and formulas of the affective and elective 
divisions of the Physical, we will now consider the effective division, which consists of the 
formal concept Quality and its sub-concepts. They may be represented diagrammatically as 
follows : 



In the central figure, which represents the elective formula, we see that the affective is 
Quantity, and the effective is Generation, these being the negative and positive phases of 
Quality, or it may be said that Quantity generates Quality, which as emerging from them 
is the equivalence of their activity. Comparing these terms with those of the elective ele- 






20 


ment of the formal concept Thought in the Philosophical, as given at page 13 above, we see 
that Generation corresponds with Identification, whose condition is Dichotomy, as the condi¬ 
tion of Generation is Quantity. 

Turning to the concept Electricity, which forms the affective or negative aspect of Qual¬ 
ity, we find that Tension and Differentiation are the polar phases of Electricity, which, as 
Extension, is their formal or equivalent expression. Now the Reality of Idea, which answers 
to Electricity, is Object-ion, which is a process of Extension, its condition being Abstraction, 
as that of Extension is Tension. This is attended with electrical Differentiation, a process 
that corresponds with Ideal Contradiction, which is the functional operation of Abstraction. 

On the positive side of the concept Quality, the affective Pressure, and the effective Inte¬ 
gration are the polar phases of Magnetism, which is their formal expression or equivalence, 
its Reality being Limitation. The correspondent, in the Philosophical, of Limitation is Sub¬ 
ject-ion, whose Idea, Reality, answers to Magnetism in the Physical, while Generalization 
corresponds with Pressure, and Affirmation with Integration. 

The simplest formal expression of the concept Quality is that which embodies in one 
formula the electives of its three' subsidiary concepts, as follows : 


Quality 



Here we see that Electricity is the affective and Magnetism the effective of Quality, as 
the elective. Quality is thus the formal or equivalent expression of Electricity and Magnet¬ 
ism, which are its negative and positive phases, as Formation, the reality of Quality, is the 
formal expression of its polar phases Extension and Limitation. 

The organic nature of the several formal concepts which make up the Physical division 
of the mental constitution, depends on the mutual relation of its various parts, as affective, 
effective, and elective, in accordance with the dynamic formula of Law. The same principle 
runs throughout the several subdivisions of the Physical itself, which constitute an organic 
unity, just as the several subdivisions of the Philosophical are so united as to form an organic 
whole, the sub-concepts of its affective and effective divisions having a special relation to the 
sub-concepts of its elective divisions. Hence, in the Physical the negative concept Light in 
the elective must be regarded as specially related in the affective and effective to Heat and 
Electricity, while the positive concept Gravitation is specially related to Chemical Affinity 
and Magnetism. In the following diagrams are represented the three negative and the three 
positive sub-concepts of the Physical, to exhibit their organic connection : 



In accordance with the law of polarity, Heat and Electricity are thus the negative and 
positive, or affective and effective aspects of Light, which is the formal expression of those 
two phases of energy, as Chemical Affinity and Magnetism are the negative and positive, or 





21 


affectn e and effecti\e aspects of Gravitation, which is thus the formal expression of those two 
forces. 

These may be supplemented by a representation of the several concepts which constitute 
the electi\ e elements of the three formal concepts of which the Physical is composed. These, 
owing to their formal character, are more expressive of the organic nature of this division of 
the Mental Constitution than its negative and positive elements, and a representation of them 
is given in the following diagram : 

(Rhythm) 

Function 


Motion 



Polarity 

(Vibration) 


Generation 


Here Function, as the elective of Motion and Generation, and Polarity, as the elective of 
Matter and Quantity, are the highest expressions of the activity of the Physical, a fact which 
is brought out still more clearly in the following diagram, in which the Ideas and Realities of 
the elective concepts are alone represented : 

Rhythm 


Quality 

Vibration 



From this diagram we see that Rhythm is the formal expression of Pow r er and Quality, 
which are, however, merely Ideas for Change and Formation. These are the affective and 
effective aspects of Vibration, the Reality of Rhythm, and thus in Vibration is summed up 
the whole functional activity of the Physical. Nevertheless, a representation of the dynamic 
formula of each of the divisions of the Physical may be given for comparison with the dy¬ 
namic formula of the Philosophical as figured at page io. They are as follows : 



The dynamic formula of Pow r er here figured answers to the dynamic formula of Law r in 
the Philosophical, as indeed this governs the structure of all formal concepts, and hence Mo¬ 
tion, as the elective, is the formal expression of Dissolution and Evolution. Function, more¬ 
over, is the formal expression of Individuation and Organization, which are its polar affective 
and effective aspects, and Generation stands in a similar relation to Differentiation and Inte¬ 
gration. But Motion and Generation as the electives of the concepts Power and Thought, 
constitute the affective and effective phases of Function, which may be described, therefore, 
as the formal or equivalent expression of Motion and Generation. 







22 


As the highest dynamic aspects of the Physical, these polar phases of Function correspond 
with Election and Identification, which occupy a similar position in the Philosophical. More¬ 
over, Function, as the expression of Motion and Generation, answers to Correspondence in the 
Philosophical, which is the formal expression of Election and Identification. What was said 
above (p. n), therefore, as to the importance of Correspondence, will apply also to Function. 
Nevertheless the former, as belonging to the highest division of the Mental Constitution, has 
a significance which the latter does not possess. And yet, as the Physical forms the basis, on 
the negative side, of the Philosophical, as the Psychical forms its basis on the positive side, 
the formulas of these two divisions of the mental constitution are applicable, as we shall see, 
to the explanation of the Philosophical itself, which would be as impossible without Function 
as the Pli5 r sical would be without Correspondence. 

It still remains to consider the formulas of the Psychical division of the Mental Constitu¬ 
tion, but as some of the terms on the negative and positive sides of Will are not satisfactory 
to the author of the Theory, as being apparently social rather than individual,* its exami¬ 
nation will not be so detailed as that of the other divisions. It is hardly necessary to repeat 
that all alike are constructed according to the same principles, and that the three formal con¬ 
cepts of the Psychical reproduce the type of the dynamic formula of Eaw, each having its 
affective, effective, and elective elements, which represent its negative, positive and formal 
aspects. The position which, as an organic whole, the Psychical occupies in the system of 
the mental organization is that of effective, and it is from one point of view intermediary be¬ 
tween the Physical and the Philosophical, although more strictly it must be regarded as one 
of the supports on which the Philosophical rests. The last named division, in fact, stands in 
the position of elective to the two others, and as the elective is the formal expression of the 
affective and effective, we will consider first the elective of the Psychical to see how far it cor¬ 
responds with the elective concepts of the Physical and Philosophical. The three subsidiary 
concepts of the Psychical elective take the following form when represented diagrammatically : 



Here Doubt, with its affective and effective phases Difference and Irradiation, is the neg¬ 
ative aspect of Intellect, of which Consciousness and Association are the affective and effective 
phases, while Belief, with its two phases, Agreement and Restriction, is the positive aspect of 
Intellect. According to the law of polarity, Intellect as Consciousness and Association 
emerges out of Doubt and Belief, of which it is the formal expression ; or, it may be said that 
Regulation, the Reality of Intellect is the equivalent expression of Discrimination and Assim¬ 
ilation. If we compare the above formulas with those of the Philosophical elective given at 
page 7, we see that Doubt corresponds with Analysis and Belief with Synthesis, while In¬ 
tellect answers to Logic in its philosophic sense. The other terms of the several related 
formulas agree equally well, and they must, therefore, correspond also with those of the Phys¬ 
ical elective, which has already been compared with the Philosophical. 

* My own is that the affective of the Psychical has reference to man as an Individual, and the effective to man as 

a member of Society. 






2 3 


If the above formulas of the Physical elective are organically united through their elect¬ 
ive elements they take the following diagrammatic form, in which the Ideas occupy the angles, 
and the Realities the sides of the figure : 



We see from this diagram that Doubt is Discrimination and Belief Assimilation, these be¬ 
ing the negative and positive aspects of Intellect, and therefore of Consciousness, which is its 
static condition. 

As the formal elective concept sums up the whole of the Physical in itself, so the elective 
of each concept which forms a sub-division of the Physical sums up the whole concept of 
which it is the formal expression. In the following diagrams we have a representation of the 
elective of Feeling, and also for comparison the elective of Law in the Philosophical : 


Keeling 




Uniformity 

Here we see Feeling, as Impression, under the affective and effective aspects of Sensibility 
and Influence, of which it is the formal or equivalent expression, as the magnet is the formal 
expression of its negative and positive phases. In comparing the concepts Feeling and Law, 
it must be remembered that they are on different planes, and that the latter as Philosophical 
supplies the principles which govern the operations of the former. Thus Relation is the legal 
condition of Sensibility, and Election is the legal condition of Influence, just as Matter and 
Motion are their physical conditions, while Impression is Uniformity in Feeling. The true 
nature of Feeling will be better exhibited, however, in the following representation of its three¬ 
fold aspect, as negative, positive and formal, which may be regarded as a correct expression 
of the Ideas and Realities which enter into its composition : 

Feeling 



Impression 


According to this diagram, Pain and Pleasure are the affective and effective phases of 
Feeling, which as Impression emerges from Discomposition and Nutrition, its polar aspects. 
In their physical relations, however, Pleasure may be said to arise from the aggregative action 
of the chemical process in Nutrition, a term which applies to the organism as a whole, and 
therefore Pain is due to a process of decomposition set up by the separative action of heat. 

The elective of the formal concept Will, and also that of the Thought concept in the 
Philosophical with which it has to be compared, are given in the following diagrams : 






24 


Will 


Expression 



Thought 


Concept-ion 



From this formula of Will, we see that it is the formal expression of its affective and 
effective phases Disposition and Reproduction. Thus Will as Expression is Reproduction un¬ 
der the conditions furnished by the Disposition, just as Thought, as Concept-ion, is Identifica¬ 
tion under the condition of Dichotomy. Hence Identification must possess the element of 
Reproduction, which may be found in Language, and as Disposition corresponds with Dichot¬ 
omy, the former, like the latter, must have a dual relation This, indeed, follows from the 
law of polarity, which requires that every formal concept shall have a negative and a positive 
aspect. The elements of the formal concept Will are exhibited in the following representa¬ 
tion of the Ideas and Realities that form the electives of the three subsidiary concepts which 
enter into its composition : 


Will 


I.iberty 



Expression 


Freedom 


Here Liberty, as the negative or affective phase of Will, is Expression under the condi¬ 
tion of License, while Freedom is such expression under the condition of Restraint, which 
answers to Subject-ion in the Philosophical. We thus see that Freedom of Will is just the 
opposite of Liberty, the latter being the expression of unrestrained disposition, while the 
former is disposition brought into Subject-ion through Thought. 

The organic unity of the three parts of the Psychical division of the mental constitution 
may be exhibited in the following diagrams, which represent the Ideas and Realities of the 
subsidiary concepts constituting its several sub-divisions : 



As thus arranged, Pain and Liberty are seen to be the affective and effective aspects of 
Doubt, which gives them formal expression, exhibiting itself as Discrimination under its polar 
aspects of Discomposition and License. In like manner, Pleasure and Freedom are the affect¬ 
ive and effective aspects of Belief, which gives them formal expression, exhibiting itself as 
Assimilation under its polar phases of Nutrition and Restraint. 

The above diagrams may be supplemented by the following, which brings together the 
electives of the formal concepts constituting the Psychical division of the mental constitution, 
and is therefore an exhibition of its highest organic unity : 







25 


(Intellect) 

Association 



(Regulation) 


11 t ns lagram Association exhibits itself under the affective and effective aspects of 
n uence and Reproduction, while Consciousness, which stands towards Association in a polar 
re a ion, gites formal expression to Sensibility and Disposition. Consciousness is, however, 
6 n° n 1 ^ 1 ° n R e o u l a ti°n, the Reality of Intellect, and thus may be described as summing 
up t e w ole Psjchical nature, which, however, under its three-fold aspect as Feeling, Will, 
and Intellect, may be represented as follows : 


Intellect 


Feeling 



Regulation 


Will 


W hen considering the Philosophical division of the mental constitution, reference was 
made to the importance of its dynamic formulas. Each of the divisions of the Psychical also 
has its dynamic aspects, which are equally important on their particular plane. It is not 
necessary to formulate them here, but it may be well to give a diagrammatic representation of 
the three highest dynamic aspects of the Psychical, for comparison with the corresponding 
terms of the Physical and Philosophical. These are brought together in the following dia¬ 
grams : 


Motion 


Correspondence 



Reproduction 


In this scheme, the affectives Motion, Influence, and Election correspond, and, therefore, 
they are all phases of Motion. There is a similar correspondence between the effectives Gen¬ 
eration, Reproduction, and Identification, and the electives Function, Association, and 
Correspondence. As Motion is the affective of the affective in the above formulas, it must be 
the condition of their functional activity throughout, although this is on different planes, and 
it may be said that as Motion (of Matter) generates Function, so Influence (of Sensibility) 
reproduces Association, and Election (of Relation) identifies Correspondence. These elect¬ 
ives may be combined so as to represent a still higher dynamic expression of the mental consti¬ 
tution, as follows: 







Function 


Association 


26 


Correspondence 



In this formula Function and Association are the affective and effective aspects of Corre¬ 
spondence, which may be said to emerge from them as their formal expression. Here we have 
the explanation of the importance assigned to Correspondence, which was before declared to 
be the key to the Theory of the mental constitution. It is not only the Philosophical phase 
of Function in the Physical and of Association in the Psychical, but as the elective in the 
above formula it is their equivalent expression. 

This fact shows that the Theory can be thoroughly understood only by tracing the con¬ 
nection of each portion of it with every other portion. The whole system is one, not merely 
of correspondence, but of mutual dependence, arising from its polar arrangement, and the 
more thoroughly this dependence is established, the more perfect the mechanism of the system 
must be. It has already been shown, that the system regarded as a whole consists of three 
series of elements, the affective, the effective, and the elective, and that these elements are 
distributed regularly throughout all the formal concepts of wdiich the Theory is composed. 
It follows, that all the elements of a particular class, that is, the affectives, the effectives, and 
the electives, have special relations among themselves, apart from the relations w T hieh the}" 
bear towards the elements belonging to another class with which they are associated, as form¬ 
ing part of the same concept. Thus not only are the formal concepts comprised within each 
division of the Theory of the mental constitution united as a whole, but the three affective 
elements which enter into their formation are specially related among themselves, as are also 
the three effective elements and the three elective elements. Moreover, the elements of a sim¬ 
ilar character throughout all the divisions of the mental constitution are thus related, so that 
all the affective elements may be said to form one group, all the effective elements another 
group, and all the elective elements a third group. 

But further, the elements belonging to each of these groups have a particular relation 
among themselves, which is governed by the position of the formal concept to which they be¬ 
long with reference to the other concepts forming with them one of the three great divisions 
of the mental constitution. Thus, although all the affective elements are specially related, 
yet those are the most closely related which belong to a concept which is the affective of 
one of those divisions. And such is the case also with the effective and the elective elements, 
which while forming a large group comprising all the elements of the particular class, are sep¬ 
arated into sub-groups consisting of the elements belonging to the affective, the effective, or 
the elective concepts as the case may be. A kind of extended sub-group is formed by the 
combination of the elements of the formal concepts which fall together, as being on the same 
negative and separative or positive and aggregative side of the mental constitution within any 
one of its main divisions, such elements being more nearly related than those on the opposite 
side of such divisions. These various connections are shown by lines drawn diagonally 
across the diagrammatic representation of the Theory, all the elements joined by a common 
line being specially related. 

It has already been mentioned that, as the Philosophical emerges from and is the formal 
expression of the Physical, which constitutes its affective base, and of the Psychical, which 
constitutes its effective base, the Philosophical must be more particularly related to the Physi¬ 
cal on its affective, which is also its negative and separative side, and to the Psychical on its 
effective, that is its positive and aggregative side. In considering, therefore, the inter-relations 



27 

of the various parts of the Theory, we will begin by tracing the connection between the sev¬ 
eral elements of the affective concepts of the Physical and Philosophical, and then proceed to 
show that of the affective elements of their elective concepts, which, as we have just seen, are 
nearly related to the former as being on the negative side of the. mental constitution. 

In the first place, it must be noted that the basis of Uniformity in the Philosophical con¬ 
cept Taw is to be found in the Physical, and that the operation of the factors of the Physical 
concept Power is governed by the terms of the concept Law.- Thus, Relation has reference to 
Matter and Election to Motion, the legal condition of Matter being Relation, and Motion be- 
* n S governed by Election ; that is, the Motion of Matter which constitutes Change is the 
Election of Relations which constitutes Uniformity, and thus Uniformity in Change is the 
law of Power.* 

Turning now to the negative sides of the affective concepts under comparison, we see that 
Heat and Separation answer to Space and Negation, and thus the privation of its opposite, or 
positive and aggregative election, which forms the condition of the Affection on which de¬ 
pends the Negation called Space, must correspond with the Energy which forms the condition 
of the Dissolution on which the Separation known as Heat depends. But as Motion is the 
dynamic aspect of Matter, so Election is the dynamic aspect of Relation, and we may say that 
Space is a separative condition of Matter depending on energy attended with Dissolution, and 
that Heat is a negative condition of relation depending on privation of positive election, which 
is itself, however, only a form of motion. 

On the positive side of the concepts, we find that Chemical Affinity and Aggregation 
correspond with Time and Position, and therefore Number, the condition of the Effection on 
which depends Position in Time attended with Election, must answer to the Force which 
forms the condition of the Evolution on which depends chemical aggregation. Hence Time 
may be said to have relation to the aggregative condition of matter depending on Force and 
accompanied by Evolution, while Chemical Affinity is a positive condition of matter depend¬ 
ing on number of elective motions. 

Referring now to the negative side of the elective of the formal concept Logic, we see 
that Space is connected with the.Persistence of Parts on which Analysis or Induction depends, 
and thus that privation of positive election is consistent with persistence of Parts. But on the 
negative side of the elective of the formal concept Rhythm in the Physical, Analysis and 
Induction answer to Light and Resistance; while Heat must be connected with Individuation 
through Repulsion, on which Light depends; and thus Energy with Dissolution is consistent 
with such Individuation, which is indeed only the Physical aspect of persistence of Parts in 
the Philosophical, as Light Resistance is the physical expression of Analytic Induction. 

We will now proceed to compare in like manner the elements of the effective concepts of 
the Physical and Philosophical, including the positive side of the elective concepts, as these 
are specially associated with the former. Considering first the electives of the concepts Qual¬ 
ity and Thought, w r e see that Concept-ion is a Formation, as on the other hand Formation is 
a Concept-ion. This view is confirmed by the fact that the function of Formation is Genera¬ 
tion, and Identification as a function must therefore be Thought generation. The static con¬ 
dition of Concept-ion is Dichotomy, showing the co-operation of two factors, and this is im¬ 
plied, therefore, in Quantity, the static aspect of Formation. Thus Quality is the Ideal 
expression of Formation through the co-operation of two elements, as Thought is a similar 
expression of Concept-ion through such a co-operation. 

* A quantity of Matter generates a formation. The formal expression of the motions generated is named Quality, or Quali¬ 
ties. and they appear as a condition in Polarity. In like manner dichotomized relations generate a formation of related motions 
which we call Thought, and they appear in the form of a condition as Mathematical.—J. J. V. N. 



28 


The two elements which enter into the formation of the concepts Quality and Thought 
are their negative and positive aspects, which must correspond in their affective and effecti\ e 
phases, as well as in their elective phases. Thus the Idea on the Philosophical plane is Elec¬ 
tricity on the Ph) r sical plane, showing the source of mental activity, and as the condition of 
the former is Abstraction and that of the latter Tension, these must be correspondents. The 
operation performed on the physical plane is Differentiation, which answers to Contradiction 
on the Philosophical plane. This is a process of Differentiation, and its result, Object-ion, is 
an Ideal Extension, of which Electricity represents the Idea. 

On the positive side of the Thought concept we have Reality, which answers to Magnet¬ 
ism, whose reality Limitation is the plij^sical correspondent of Subject-ion. The condition on 
which Reality in Thought depends is Generalization, answering to Pressure the condition of 
Magnetism, and Pressure and Generalization may be said to be correspondents on their differ¬ 
ent planes. The operation of that physical force is Integration, an operation equivalent to 
Affirmation which, as the third law of Thought, is the assertion that an object is either A or 
non-A. 

If now we compare the positive sides of the electives of the concepts Logic and Rhythm, 
we find that the dynamic aspect of the former is Continuity, w r hich in the Physical exhibits 
itself as Organization. The condition of the latter is Attraction and it gives \\ holes in the 
Philosophical. Here Continuity has reference to the process of Object-ion and Subject-ion in 
Concept-ion, w r hich is that of Synthesis or Deduction. So, also, in the Physical, Organization 
has relation to Extension and Limitation in Formation, and this is one of Dependence or Grav¬ 
itation. Hence Gravitation answers to Philosophical Synthesis, of which the polar phases are 
Idea and Reality as the polar phases of Gravitation are Electricity and Magnetism. 

We are now in a position to see whether the relations between the electives of the con¬ 
cepts Logic and Rhythm are of a similar character. The dynamic aspect of the former is 
Correspondence, which, according to the principles above laid down, answers to Function in 
the Physical, both alike being the expression of equivalence in the functional activity of all 
the parts of the concept. The condition of this activity is in the one case Mathematics, and 
in the other case Polarity, both of which terms imply the co-existence of two elements, positive 
and negative, plus and minus. The Reality of Logic is Revelation under the condition of 
mathematical Correspondence, as the Reality of Rytlim is Vibration under the condition of 
polarity in Function. But further, as the physical equivalent of Relation is Vibration, so this 
is itself revelation, and the philosophical correspondent of Rhythm is Logic, which, as w T e 
have seen, is synonymous with Wisdom, that is, Truth. Thus, Truth is mathematical cor¬ 
respondence, and its physical basis is functional polarity, or polarity in function. 

We will now turn to the Psychical division of the mental constitution, wdiich stands in 
the position of effective with reference to the Physical and the Philosophical divisions, which 
are the affective and the elective. The Psychical therefore constitutes, the positive aspect as 
opposed to the Physical w'hich is the negative, the Philosophical being the formal aspect of 
the mental constitution. They have, therefore, a mutual dependence, and it is evident that 
the relations between the Physical and the Philosophical considered above can be realized only 
through the agency of the Psychical, which may thus be regarded as the medium of opera¬ 
tion. From this standpoint, we see that Uniformity as Law is related to Change as Power, 
through Impression as Feeling, and thus the uniformity of change to which Law and Power 
refer is in Feeling. The condition of this is Sensibility and its function Influence, and there¬ 
fore the Matter and Motion which are affected by Change, must be Sensible matter and influ¬ 
ential Motion, that is, such as will establish a psychical relation and election. 

Again, Separation as Heat is the condition of sensible decomposition or Pain, and the 


29 


Space negation in the Philosophical must have reference to this psychical affection. More¬ 
over, the condition of Privation, and its operation Affection, also have their basis in Feeling, 
as Dissonance and Aversion due to Energy and Dissolution, attended with Separation in the 
Physical, which is Decomposition in the Psychical, and Negation of Relation in the Philosoph¬ 
ical. On the other hand, Position in the Philosophical is the chemical aggregation of Nutri¬ 
tion in the Psychical and Physical, attended with Consonance in the Psychical, arising from 
the action of physical force and Evolution, and with the setting up of a number of relations 
in the Philosophical. The effection which is the activity of Number, we see to be the satis¬ 
faction attendant on physical evolution, which is said to be the phase of change that accom¬ 
panies chemical action and that gives a pleasurable feeling, and sets up the positive relation 
of Time which corresponds with Pleasure. Time thus seems to be the measure of the changes 
in the sensible organism which are attended with the aggregative action of chemical affinity 
and are therefore pleasurable in their nature. 

As the affective of the Psychical is specially related to the affectives of the Physical and 
the Philosophical, so the effective of the former division of the mental constitution is specially 
related to the effectives of the latter divisions. Thus Dichotomy in Thought is expressive of 
Disposition, the Physical condition of which is Quantity, as its Psychical operation is Repro¬ 
duction. The Ph} 7 sical correspondent of this is Generation, its philosophical activity being 
Identification, which is thus reproduction in Thought, attended with Concept-ion as its effect, 
the Physical effect being Formation which in the Psychical is Expression or Will. Will has 
a dual operation, as negative and positive, and we see that Object-ion is the philosophical ex¬ 
pression of License by Extension, the condition and result of License being Anarchy with 
Waste, corresponding with Tension and Differentiation in the Physical and Abstraction and 
Contradiction in the Philosophical. On the positive side of Will, Freedom is opposed to Lib¬ 
erty as Reality to Idea in the Philosophical, and Magnetism to Electricity in the Physical, 
and thus Subject-ion is restraint by Limitation, its condition Generalization being Order 
through Pressure, and its operation Affirmation being Economy through Integration. 

We have now only to trace the relations of the elective concept of the Psychical to the 
electives of the other divisions of the mental constitution. It is evident that the negative 
phase of Intellect, Doubt and Discrimination, answers to Analysis and Induction, their phys¬ 
ical condition being Light, which as Resistance depends on Individuation by Repulsion, with 
Irradiation through Difference in the Psychical, and Persistence as Parts in the Philosophical. 
On the other side we see that Restriction in the Psychical, under the condition of Agreement, 
and attended with Assimilation, is physical Organization, depending on Attraction and giving 
Dependence, and philosophical Continuity, depending on Wholes, which exhibits itself as 
Deduction. Finally, if we compare the elective formulas, we see that Mathematical Corre¬ 
spondence, which depends on Polarity in Function, arises through Association in Conscious¬ 
ness, and that Philosophical Revelation is the result of the psychical Regulation of physical 
Vibration, Logic being thus the Rhythm of Intellectual activity. 

Before concluding, reference should be made to the rule which would seem to govern all 
the operations of the Mental Constitution, as exhibited in the Theory. From the fact that 
this embodies throughout the law of polarity, and that all its relations are Mathematical, we 
may infer that the algebraic signs + and — could be substituted everywhere for the positive 
and negative terms of the formal concepts with which the Theory is built up. This is an 
important feature of the System, for it enables the quality of an act to be ascertained without 
difficulty, simply by reference to the algebraic rule that 

+ X — gives — + X + gives + 

— X — gives -f — X + gives — 

It is an axiomatic truth that an Act is an Impression (Feeling) and an Expression (Will), 


30 

and if we “substitute signs of the rule for divided factors of Impression and Expression, of 
same quality, placing them in corresponding positions,’’ the quality of an Act can be stated in 
terms of the rule, that is, by plus or minus signs, the former being good as positive, and the 
latter bad as negative. But the dynamic aspect which exhibits the actual result of any such 
act, and the plus or minus term by which it is expressed, must be sought for in the upper, that 
is, the elective or formal concept, and not in either of the lower. 

For example, the two minuses Aversion and Waste give by their union Restriction, as do 
also the two pluses Satisfaction and Economy. In like manner, Aversion and Economy, as 
w^ell as JDesire and Waste, being a plus and a minus, give Irradiation, and this rule applies 
throughout the whole of the divisions of the Theory, and their several terms, the affectives 
being negative or minus, and the effectives, positive or plus. It is evident that each of the 
three divisions of the Theory may be represented diagrammatically as two triangles, one of 
them negative and the other positive, the former comprising all the affective elements of the 
three formal concepts within the division, and the latter comprising all the effective elements. 
The affective triangle will, therefore, be minus and the effective triangle plus, and if they are 
placed opposite to each other, as follows, they form a figure which furnishes a key to the 
Theory : 



+ 


Here the triangle pointing upwards represents the negative or affective elements, and the 
triangle pointing downwards the positive or effective elements, the apex of the triangle in each 
case representing the upper or elective concept, and therefore being the point towards which 
the signs converge. Thus two signs of a like quality, -whether plus or minus, on opposite sides 
of the dual figure, always converge at the phis apex, while two signs of a different quality 
converge at the viinus apex. The above figure should represent equally well every division 
of the Theory, and may be used, therefore, for each of them. This is not really opposite to 
the connection pointed out above (pages 9, 20, 24), between the several sub-concepts which 
enter into the construction of the formal concepts comprised within those divisions. 

The assertion made at an early page that the Mental Constitution is an organic unity has 
now been fully justified. The Theory must, therefore, be regarded as the exhibition of that 
unity, and thus as itself possessing an organic character. It regards the human mind as the 
organic embodiment of universal truth, and its highest term Logic as the Universal which 
comprises all its lower terms. Logic is itself exhibited, however, as a formal concept, and it 
is the application of the principle of the formal concept to the mental constitution that gives 
the Theory its special features. The concept is formed according to the law of Polarity, which 
requires that it shall have three elements, of which the affective, answering to the negative 
aspect, is separative, the effective or positive is aggregative, and the third is the elective or 




formal, that which impresses on the concept its organic character. The law of polarity, fur¬ 
ther requires that each of those three elements shall have three terms, which constitute its 
static, dynamic, and formal aspects. The same law governs each division of the mental con¬ 
stitution, as it is made up of three formal concepts arranged as affective, effective, and elective 
elements, the three chief divisions of the mental constitution being themselves similarly ar¬ 
ranged. 

Hitherto the materials collected by science have been thrown, together in the semblance of 
a building, some parts of which show more architectural appearance than others, but, as re¬ 
marked by Mr. Van Nostrand, it has not been designed with mathematical precision. It is 
the object of the Theory to provide the plans and specifications necessary for the erection of 
the^temple of science in accordance with mathematical principles, while itself illustrating those 
principles in every part of its structure. The Theory is thus strictly mechanical in its nature, 
and may be regarded as a formulation of the static conditions of the organized machine, and 
of the co-operative functions through which its dynamic activity is displayed. But its perfect 
mechanism appears to me to be evidence of Intellect, and to preclude the idea that the mental 
constitution is of strictly material origin. The value of the Theory depends on its organic 
character, which is exhibited in the relations between the several formal concepts of which it 
is composed, and in the structure of the formal concept itself. But the mechanical application 
of the law of polarity has a tendency to hide the true organic nature of the Theory, and 
therefore of the mental constitution which it represents, and on which the value of the Theory 
itself ultimately depends. 

The Mental Constitution must be regarded as an organic whole, and therefore if we trace 
it to its beginnings in germ this will be found to contain the potentiality of all that has devel¬ 
oped from it, just as the original simple protoplasmic cell contained potentially all the phases 
of organic existence which have appeared since the dawn of life on the earth. There is noth¬ 
ing to show that the physical element of the mental constitution could give rise to the Psy¬ 
chical and Philosophical, except as already part of an existence organic in its nature; and we 
may argue by analogy that this is only a phase of an universal existence which, like man or 
the primordial protoplasm, is organic. We may, in fact, declare that the Theory really rep¬ 
resents a double process, that, on the one hand, by which the Divine Mind reveals itself in 
Nature, and that, on the other hand, by which Nature reveals the Divine in the human mind. 
In this case, the human mind must be regarded as the reflection of the divine as exhibited in 
nature, and the Theory, as a revelation of human nature, must be a revelation also of Nature 
itself as divine. 















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